Part II, the U.S. Navy Mark V

Hello HDM blog-followers! Good to have you back with us for Part II of the U.S. Navy Mark V saga! This blog entry will provide an overview of the components of the Mark V. For those of you who missed Part I, (the history of the Mark V) I urge you to reference back here before reading this blog.

"The U.S. Navy Mark V is the most coveted and recognized diving helmet in the world. It embodies helmeted diving with its bold look, functional design and long-standing history in American diving."

Stream-lining of the Mark Helmets

An earlier age of diving pioneers held the belief that the more extravagant and involved a diving apparatus, the more sophisticated it was, and therefore, the better it would be to convey a diver to depth. By the turn of the twentieth century, helmet manufacturers came to this realization that the more extravagant the design, the better chance something would fail, and there began a shift toward simplicity.

The U.S. Navy Mark V was created during the diving craze of the early twentieth century, when many different helmets were produced and knowledge about diving was becoming increasingly common. By 1917, G. L. Stillson completed the design of the Mark V, but at the time, no one could have foreseen the impact it would have on the history of diving.

This, of course, begs the question, what was different about this helmet that separated it from helmets of the same generation? Well, when Stillson called for the standardization of the Navy dive program, they needed not only good equipment, but it had to be the best. Main considerations were that it had to be easily fixable, comprehensible by the average enlisted-man, and sufficient for deep-dives. The combination of these requirements produced a well-built unit that would be used by the U.S. Navy for more than fifty years!

The design of the helmet, the placement of the components, and the size and weight considerations were completed by a process of trial and error. Four helmets were constructed and tried: the Marks I, II, III, and IV, and the best aspects from these four designs were used to build the Mark V helmet.

Early Mark Helmets: I-IV

Two companies manufactured the early Mark helmets. The Morse Company of Boston was first commissioned to build helmets to the navy standard. The identifying feature of the Morse helmets is the oval shaped side ports. The Shrader Company of New York was commissioned to build early Mark helmets as well but with their design instead, has circular side ports. Below are the Mark I-IV helmets made by Morse and Shrader:

The protagonist, the Mark V...

The Navy used the Marks I-IV, as shown above, with great success for many years, but with four designs in circulation, there still wasn't a standard helmet for the diving program (which was the original purpose of improving the diving program). Incorporating various design features of the earlier Mark helmets, allowed for the Mark V helmet to take on a common shape and features.

The Navy commissioned four companies to produce the Mark V diving helmets. They continued the already existing tradition with the Shrader and Morse Companies, but added the Diving Equipment and Supply Company (DESCO) of Milwaukee and the Miller-Dunn Company of Miami.


Morse Mark V

Schrader Mark V

DESCO Mark V

Miller-Dunn Mark V

Mark V Expanded

The strategic placement of the components separated the Mark V from all other helmets. The Mark V remained the U.S. navy standard from 1915 to 1979 while it remained largely unchanged.

Front View

Side View

Top View

Symbolism of the Mark V

The longevity of the helmet's application both militarily and commercially are are symbolic of the United States military at large. It stands as an identity of the ingenuity and design associated with the military similarly to the M16 rifle and the M113 tank.

If you ever get a chance to dive a Mark V you will understand why they are among the best ever made.

The World-Wide Impact of the South Florida Divinhood

Florida Keys historians have emphasized treasure salvage, but overlooked that this started with an invention called the South Florida Divinhood. Biologists alike have forgotten that modern marine biology orginated with the same apparatus, and at the same time, diving historians have overlooked that the same Divinhood started recreational sports diving right here in the Florida Keys. Likewise, each of these developments had an international impact, and in each, the Divinhood served a key role as the catalyst. Here we will explore these interesting adventures and the impact of the South Florida Divinhood.

Miller and Dunn

An exaggeratedly optimistic view describes one of the newest cities in the United States, Miami, Florida: "There is nothing finer in the world, than Miami with an up-to-date, go ahead class of people." It was a great place to live and make money, and if you couldn't succeed in Miami, you would be a failure anywhere. Here was the best jail, an ice cream factory, free mail delivery, electricity, a telephone system, and four newspapers. Henry Flagler had built a complete infrastructure with all the modern conveniences to make Miami a tropical paradise and playground, prompting development, enterprise, and opportunities.

It was in this vibrant "can-do" environment that 37 year-old William F. Miller arrived from Evanston, Illinois in 1902. He quickly and eagerly participated in the new and ample opportunities. Miller is shown here standing by the mast of his sail boat with his wife Carrie closest.

William Miller invested in many businesses, but as fate would have it, he met the captain and craftsman William S. Dunn. By 1913, Miller and Dunn partnered in hardware, plumbing, and tinning businesses in the center of town on Avenue D. Where Miller was an excellent business man, Dunn was on the opposite end of the spectrum and could build just about anything with his hands. Dunn made a number of useful inventions for the surrounding South Florida waters as he had the tools and materials necessary from his hardware and tinning stores.

The Divinhood

To quote a common cliche, "Necessity is the mother of invention!" The craftsman William Dunn found a growing need for a diving apparatus to recover items that had fallen into the Miami waterways. What he built was a simple diving helmet from a cylindrically shaped wooden nail barrel.

The final product was an open-bottom helmet called the Divinhood. It was a copper design that was light, simple, very practical, and easy to use. The patent would show a single viewing port, a handle on top to easily lift it over the diver's head, and an ordinary garden hose fitting that provided air to the diver. Imprinted on the helmet was the trademark "Dunn Divinhood." The secret to its success and popularity was that it was so well adaptable it was perfect for diving in the warm, shallow waters of Miami and the Florida Keys.

Miller and Dunn began commercially manufacturing the Divinhood and advertised its application for a wide range of uses. Actually, a series of three Divinhood styles were developed: the Style 1 in 1916, the Style 2 in 1926, and the Style 3 in 1937. Alongside the helmet, Miller and Dunn developed compact double cylinder pumps in three improving designs for each successive Divinhood Style.

The World-Wide Impact

Some of the most common questions people ask are: "What were the helmets used for? Why make diving helmets? And, who needs them and for what?" The open-bottom helmet was so functional, it became a key technology in starting many fields related to diving. Accordingly each helmet style is credited with sparking a groundbreaking achievement: sports diving with the Style 1, marine biology with the Style 2, and underwater photography and modern treasure diving with the Style 3.

The Style 1 helmet was marketed to boaters seeking on site repairs and recovery of lost objects, but it was also useful for sports diving by non-diver amateurs and adventurers, mainly because of it's ease and simplicity. A popular advertisement for the Divinhood claimed that "A diving apparatus so simple anyone can use it."

The Style 2 is credited with starting modern marine biology. The first scientist to discover the great potential of the simple Divinhood for underwater study and exploration was Dr. William Beebe. At the time, Dr. Beebe was the Director of Tropical Research at the New York Zoological Society. In 1926, during his cruise on his ship called the Arcturus, Beebe fortuitously acquired the newly procured Divinhood and packed it in its compact crate amongst the cargo. His first dive was more than just an eye-opener for him. It exposed him to the unknown wonders of marine life and an easy way for sub-surface study. Upon entering the water, he instantly became converted from ornithology to marine biology. After he introduced the Divinhood Style 2 for underwater study and photography, many other biologists followed his lead. The Style 2 was also widely used for motion pictures, initially by Beebe, and later by Hans Hass and R W Miner.

Lastly, the Style 3 was becoming more common-place for those seeking access to the underwater environment, but the most interesting and picturesque character to use it was Art McKee, today a Florida Keys legend. A native of New Jersey, McKee was trained as a diver in heavy closed helmet gear. As the war approached, he took a job laying the pipeline under the Keys' bridges for the Aqueduct Authority and for the Navy. Art then discovered the Divinhood Style 3 and adopted it as his favorite helmet. Shedding the warm, heavy gear associated with full diving-dress, Art began a long attachment to his open-bottom Divinhood. He preferred it even when early SCUBA became available and was used by all his diving companions and associates (note Art in the picture on the left using the Divinhood while the others use modern diving apparatuses). Art McKee used the helmet preferentially for pipe-laying, treasure salvage, and to initiate sports diving for tourists in the Florida Keys before SCUBA in 1948. Of the many applications of the Divinhood, McKee initiated modern salvage diving using the Divinhood Style 3 and became known as the Father of Treasure Salvage and also "Silver Bar McKee."

Homemade and Commercial Imitations

The Miller-Dunn helmets were so functional they became widely imitated and replicated by others for their simplicity and usefulness. Craftsmen in their garages started using household items to build their very own version of the Divinhood. What they produced were many oddly shaped helmets with no two alike; however, they all shared one common feature: the open-bottom concept.

Maybe the most famous customized helmet was designed for marine biologist, underwater educator and photographer, Hans Hass. Distance and brewing pre-war tensions encouraged him to have a helmet made in Vienna by a tinsmith with the concept of the Divinhood in mind. Like Beebe, with this helmet he could now walk leisurely around the seabed and explore the reef.

Realizing there was a demand for open-bottom helmets, many commercial manufacturers mimicked the concept. Companies that at one time exclusively built the helmets for the full diving dress were now producing open-bottom helmets that were as functionally sound as the Divinhoods. For instance, the Hammond Company also of Miami, Florida built quite possibly the best open-bottom helmet design. The Divinhood required four weights to overcome the force produced by the contained air. The Hammond helmet, on the other hand, was constructed of heavy brass and was absent of any additional weights. It was also very large with a huge viewing port. It was an absolutely fantastic design.

Today, the open-bottom concept the Miller-Dunn Company popularized is still existence today. The modern SeaWalker invented for resort diving is still used in parts of Japan for the same desired simplicity as the early Divinhood. The helmet fits comfortably over the shoulders, and one can walk the ocean floor. The yellow AquaBell was also a popular recreational diving unit through the 1960's. It was mainly used by beach combers that would bring the plastic helmet along on their trip, fill the yellow ring with sand, and use the specially designed pump to supply air to the bell.

The Significant Impact that is the Miller-Dunn Divinhood

Although the Divinhood is now considered an obsolete technology with the advent of replacements such as SCUBA, fiber-glass helmets for commercial diving and submarines, their technological significance to the history of science and technology serves as an important learning tool. At the History of Diving Museum, the history of the Divinhood helmet is paramount to the story we tell here. It encompasses a large segment of the museum, a segment in history that exhibits six displays in the museum. Furthermore, the Divinhood Style 2 is the logo for the History of Diving Museum because of its significance to South Florida, the Florida Keys legend Art McKee, and its groundbreaking design making it the logical identity of the museum.

Improbable Diving Machines

Welcome back to the History of Diving Museum Collections Blog! You may have noticed we have taken a month long hiatus from online diving history. We are pleased to be sharing all new topics on items within the museum's collection. In our second series, we will cover part II of the U.S. Navy Mark V, rebreathers, and much more, with pictures and information that won't be found anywhere else!

This blog takes us back to the earliest of diving techniques...

The first exhibits at the History of Diving Museum illustrate a historical timeline, which reinforces the idea that there has always been a natural fascination for man to explore the deep sea, and before submarines, diving helmets and SCUBA, man employed a wide array of techniques to get there. As early as the first traces of mankind in ancient Mesopotamia, evidence confirms that diving techniques were used for a variety of applications.

As with any history, we tend to interpret it linearly, meaning we look directly at what led to our successful technologies. This approach to history, however, neglects key developments that can prove very significant to its interpretation. In the historical timeline, improbable diving machines present that segment in history almost lost because of an indirect link to the diving techniques of today.

The "Improbable Diving Machines" exhibit pays tribute to fanciful machines that were complicated, involved, and often times, functionally unsound. Many are oddly shaped with unusual designs, but however strange they appear, they are significant to the history of diving; they stand as proof that man did whatever was necessary to venture beneath the sea, regardless of the risks involved. For this reason, improbable diving machines belong in the timeline of diving.

Many of the improbable machines displayed in the exhibit have an easily identifiable design flaw. For instance, most visitors to the museum can point out the flaw in the the leather hood and snorkel concept (pictured on the right). This whimsical machine was limited by the pressure on the diver's chest, which would have prevented him from inhaling air more than one or two feet deep (hence the length of the average snorkel). Another limitation is that the snorkel is made of leather, a collapsible material, which also would have failed because of the effects of the hydrostatic pressure. This apparatus has a unique design, and with certain tweaks (shortened length of the snorkel and constructed with a solid composite) it might have worked.

Although this exhibit is named for the improbability of the successful application of these machines, not all would have failed...

Take for example Frederic Drieberg's "Le Triton," a surprisingly complex diving machine first conceptualized in 1805. The backpack contained two bellows activated by the diver moving his head back and forth. The bellows received air supply from the surface that supply air to the diver and also to his lamp. This early attempt at underwater lighting recognized that candle flame needs fresh air just as the diver would. The design, although highly unlikely to be of any purposeful application, could have worked in shallow-water. Along with this diving apparatus, the History of Diving Museum also displays Drieberg's original book "The Memoir of a New Diving Machine called Triton" illustrating this spectacular apparatus (written in 1811).

Another improbable diving machine on display at the museum is the"copper kettle," designed by Karl Heinrich Klingert, a German-born mechanical engineer. Credited as an innovator in diving, his copper kettle shares many similiarities to the diving helmet, which wouldn't be developed commercially for nearly a century. One of the first examples of self-contained diving, Klingert's design used a large reservoir piston or could be supplied from the surface. The copper kettle was used successfully in 1797, when a diver wearing Klingert's outfit removed a submerged tree limb from the River Oder in Germany.

Although Drieberg's "Le Triton" and Klingert's "copper kettle" never became the standard diving equipmet, they are significant from the standpoint that there was great risk involved. They provide a broader understanding of man as an explorer, a maverick, and a dare devil that put life in harm's way to explore the unknown. The "Improbable Diving Machines" exhibit is significant to explain a segment in history where many different machines were tried, not to become pioneers in diving, but to better access the world around us.

The U.S. Navy Mark V

It's hard to believe, but the History of Diving Museum Collections Blog is entering into its third month of online diving history! The focus of this blog has been to inform readers on the history of artifacts within the collection. So far, I have chosen only those items with great significance to diving and Florida Keys history. Although diving bells, Art McKee, the first American diving helmet and the last petroleum lamp are very important, I have somehow neglected quite possibly the most important piece of diving history...

The U.S. Navy Mark V is the most coveted and recognized diving helmet in the world. It embodies helmeted diving with its bold look, functional design and long-standing history in American diving. Navy Dive Master Carl Brashear (his story was the inspiration for the movie Men of Honor) used a Mark V during his career. Today, it symbolizes not only an important segment in diving history, but also stands as one of the most important technologies in the history of the world.

On to the history...

The U.S. Navy discovered a growing need for a standardized diving program. To the surprise of many, at the turn of the century the Navy had neither a standardized procedure or equipment for the diving program. Consequently, they were diving any and all equipment available, often with little knowledge of the dangers associated with diving.

In 1912, Navy Gunner G.D. Stillson wrote a letter to the Bureau of Construction and Repair (Bureau of Ships as it is called today) concerning the current diving program or lack thereof! He assembled a team and began a critical analysis of existing diving procedures. In the following years, Stillson and his team were commissioned to evaluate, improve and redesign every part of the diving program.

This evaluation produced two major developments. By 1915 G. D. Stillson, through the intercession of the Bureau of Construction and Repair, completed the first U.S. Navy guideline for diving known as the Report on Deep Diving Tests. This report served as the framework for Navy diving in the years to come. In it, Stillson discussed the necessary decompression times for deep dives, principles of pressure and most importantly, the equipment fostered through the program.

In Stillson's evaluations, he tested a wide variety of diving equipment, mostly those from the Schrader and Morse Companies, but also equipment from Draeger and Siebe. In the two years leading up to the completion of the Report on Deep Diving Tests, a standardized equipment would be developed for the U.S. Navy, giving birth to the Mark I!

The Mark V helmet, the standardization of the diving program and the self evaluation of the program, symbolizes the future of the U.S. military as we know it. Mark, a work frequently associated with military hardware, simply means a 'standard' or 'variant.'

Stillson and the Navy experimented with four versions of the Mark helmets, the Mark I, II,III and IV. The Mark V combined the best aspects from the previous four helmets. The final version was completed in 1917 and remained largely unchanged until its decommission in 1984. It is believed that only a mere 7,000 to 10,000 were ever constructed.

Four companies were commissioned to build the Mark V. The first Mark V helmet was made by the Morse Company; it is also the most common. Schrader, Desco and Miller-Dunn were also commissioned to build the Mark V. The Miami based Miller-Dunn Company produced the fewest helmets making them the rarest by today's standard. Out of the hundred or so helmets manufactured by the Miller-Dunn Company, the History of Diving Museum has two on display.

A Mark V helium rebreather version was also developed. The helmet has a large helium scrubber on the back. Of course, adding a large helium scrubber serves as a reservoir for more air, adding increased force buoying the apparatus and diver to the surface. To offset this affect, the helium Mark V needed increased weight to compensate for this added force. The boots are larger and lace just below the knee (a rather stunning look for those who have seen the design). The 'Banana Exhaust' was moved from the back of the helmet to the top where it was excluded from its original placement due to the scrubber. Lastly, the dumbbell lock was moved from the rear of the helmet to the front.

In the late 1970's, the Mark helmets changed completely. No longer a metallic base, the Marks are now fiber glass which changed the identity forever. HDM displays a newer version from the Mark line. The Morse Mark XII is the successor to their line of copper helmets. The top part of the helmet can be used alone for swim diving with air supplied by a hose from the surface, or a backpack or used with a 12-bolt attachment. It is much lighter than the original Mark V diving dress.

The Mark V is the icon of helmeted diving, thus this blog cannot be completed without a more in depth look at the helmet. This will be a two-part blog; the second part will provide an overview of the components on the Mark V. If you would like to learn more about what made this helmet one of the best manufactured technologies of the twentieth century, stay tuned for our next blog! The History of Diving Museum is the largest collection of historical diving apparatus in the world, we're proud to be your source for diving history!

Sources:

http://diveamarkv.com/4.html (accessed 08/28/2010)

http://www.divingheritage/markvkern.htm (accessed 08/28/2010)

http://www.pricesforantiques.com/ (accessed 08/28/2010)

Petroleum Underwater Diver's Light, Cabirol, France c.1860

The History of Diving Museum (HDM) displays many artifacts that are one of a kind, the first or simply the rarest in existence. However, out of the many priceless artifacts, the Cabirol Petroleum lamp is extremely rare and cannot be found anywhere else in the world.

Significant from both a technological and conceptual standpoint, the Cabirol Petroleum lamp was designed in 1860 by Joseph Cabirol in France. This grand petroleum lamp was made before electricity was used in underwater lighting! The Cabirol lamp predated the transition from open flame to electricity.

Now, to take a step back, it is best to understand the history of electricity to appreciate the significance of the Cabirol lamp. A late 19th century design, it barely missed the jump from oil lighting to electricity (a fuel that would be outsourced shortly thereafter). The discovery of electricity dates back to 3rd century B.C.E. during the time of the Ancient Egyptians. Texts confirm an understanding of electrical charge created by fish. However, electricity and positive energy would remain an intellectual phenomenon for the next two-thousand years. Many credit Benjamin Franklin with the first discovery and application of electric charge in his famous, 'kite in a thunderstorm' experiment, but truthfully, it wasn't until the 19th century that Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, Otto Blathy, Anyos Jedlik, Sir Charles Parsons, George Westinghouse, Ernst Werner von Siemens, and Lord Kelvin transformed electricity from an intellectual curiosity to an essential tool for everyday life.

From a design standpoint, the fuel source (petroleum) was held in the bottom canister. To keep the flame burning in the crystal sphere, a steady supply of oxygen was needed -- just as a diver would need fresh air. The air was provided by a dedicated 2-piston air pump contained in the pump box. The air was pumped through a set of rubberized hoses (in 1860!), down the lamp. The hot gases were then channeled out the top and through the pipes surrounding the crystal globe, where the hot fumes were coolest to prevent scorching rubber return hoses.

Due to a fortuitous accident, this rare lamp was preserved for 150 years! The petroleum flame was lit and the lamp was quickly closed to make it watertight. But before the lamp was lowered into the water, the crystal globe became too hot and cracked -- as can be seen on the lamp! Because the lamp was broken, it was condemned to a removed warehouse, where it was forgotten for a century and a half.

The lamp is displayed in the "Abyss" exhibit at HDM.

The Cabirol Company

Cabirol is also known in the historical diving community for its contribution to helmeted diving. Around 1842, the company began producing helmets; their inclusion of a top window separated their design from that of the Morse Company. Although few still remain, the HDM collection owns a Cabirol helmet. An extremely rare artifact in its own right, missing the front port and brails, its dull color suggests the uncommon nature of the item.

At the time, the Cabirol Company was highly regarded in France and respected for their contributions in diving. The French, in their typical decadent fashion, prominently displayed divers etched in stone with the inscription "Famille Cabirol-Ferrus" on the steps of the Cabirol factory. To our dismay, two larger divers surrounded the doors of the factory, carrying none other than the Cabirol petroleum lamp.

Today, the Cabirol Company is no longer in existence. Once a small company in France, Cabirol was almost forgotten in diving history. HDM serves as the company's greatest monument and appreciation for their contribution to diving history.